The Layers of a Forest From Floor to Canopy

Forests are habitats in which the trees are the dominant form of vegetation. They occur in many regions and climates around the globe—the tropical rainforests of the Amazon basin, the temperate forests of eastern North America, and the boreal forests of northern Europe are just a few examples. Species Composition The species composition of a forest is often unique to that forest, with some forests consisting of many hundreds of species of trees while others consist of just a handful of species. Forests are constantly changing and progress through a series of successional stages during which species composition changes within the forest. Thus, making general statements about forest habitats can be difficult. Yet despite the variability of our planets forests, there are some basic structural characteristics that many forests share—characteristics that can help us to better understand both forests and the animals and wildlife that inhabit them. The Layers of a Forest Mature forests often have several distinct vertical layers. These include: Forest floor layer:  The  forest floor  is often blanketed with decaying leaves, twigs, fallen trees, animal scat, moss, and other detritus. The forest floor is where recycling occurs, fungi, insects, bacteria, and earthworms are among the many organisms that break down waste materials and ready them for reuse and recycling throughout the forest system.Herb layer:  The  herb layer  of the forest is dominated by herbaceous (or soft-stemmed) plants such as grasses, ferns, wildflowers, and other ground covers. Vegetation in the herb layer often gets little light and in forests with thick canopies, shade tolerant species are predominant in the herb layer.Shrub layer: The shrub layer is characterized by woody vegetation that grows relatively close to the ground. Bushes and brambles grow where enough light passes through the canopy to support shrub growth.Understory layer: The understory of a forest consists of immature trees and small trees that are shorter than the main canop y level of the tree. Understory trees provide shelter for a wide range of animals. When gaps form in the canopy, often times understory trees take advantage of the opening and grow to fill in the canopy.Canopy layer:  The canopy is the layer where the crowns of most of the forests trees meet and form a thick layer.Emergent layer:  Emergents are trees whose crowns emerge above the rest of the canopy. Mosaic of Habitats These different layers provide a mosaic of habitats and enable animals and wildlife to settle into various pockets of habitat within the overall structure of a forest. Different species use the various structural aspects of the forest in their own unique ways. Species might occupy overlapping layers within a forest but their use of those layers might occur at different times of the day so that they do not compete with one another.

Noise in Electronic Communications Systems - 1312 Words

An additive noise is characteristic of almost all communication systems. This additive noise typically arises from thermal noise generated by random motion of electrons in the conductors comprising the receiver. In a communication system the thermal noise having the greatest effect on system performance is generated at and before the first stage of amplification. This point in a communication system is where the desired signal takes the lowest power level and consequently the thermal noise has the greatest impact on the performance. This characteristic is discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. This chapter’s goal is to introduce the mathematical techniques used by communication system engineers to characterize and predict the†¦show more content†¦It turns out that W(t) is accurately characterized as a stationary, Gaussian, and white random process. Consequently, our first task is to define a random process (Section 9.1). The exposition of the characteristics of a Gaussian random process (Section 9.2) and a stationary Gaussian random process (Section 9.3) then will follow. A brief discussion of the characteristics of thermal noise is then followed by an analysis of stationary random processes From this point forward in the text the experimental outcome index will be dropped and random processes will be represented as N(t). EXAMPLE 9.1 A particular random process is defined as N(t) = U exp[−|t|] + V (9.1) where U and V are independent random variables. It is clear that with each sample value of the random variables U(ω) and V (ω) there will be a time function N(t, ω). This example of a random process is not typical of a noise process produced in real communication systems but it is an example process that proves insightful as we develop tools to characterize noise in communications. EXAMPLE 9.2 A noise generator and a lowpass filter are implemented in Matlab with a sample rate of 22,050 kHz. Recall each time Matlab is run this is equivalent to a different experiment outcome, i.e., a different ω. A sample path of the input noise to the filter, W(t), and a sample path at the output of the filter, N(t), is shown in Figure 9.3 for a filter with a bandwidth of 2.5 kHz. It isShow MoreRelatedWireless Communication : A First Decade Of The 20th Century1356 Words   |  6 PagesTelecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between two or more entities (communication) includes the use of technology. Communication technology uses channels to transmit information (as electrical signals), either over a physical medium (such as signal cables), or in the form of electromagnetic waves.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The word is often used in its plural form, telecommunications, because it involves many different technologies. Early means of communicating over a distance includedRead MoreUnit 1 Assignment 1 Essay example973 Words   |  4 PagesSection 1-1 1. Define modulation. 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Sports And Agression Essay Research Paper Sports free essay sample

Sports And Agression Essay, Research Paper Sports and Aggression A Research Paper Presented to # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8211 ; at # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8211 ; In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for English 12A By # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; # 8212 ; Period 1 March 27, 2000 Make athleticss make aggressive behaviour, or merely attract people who are already aggressive? Aggression and athletics have gone together every bit long as athleticss have been around, be it the participants themselves, to the parents, managers, or witnesss, they merely seem to be an inseparable portion of each other. The term force is defined as physical assault based on entire neglect for the well being of ego and others, or the purpose to wound another individual ( 2. Coakley ) . Intimidation normally does non do physical injury, but frequently is designed to bring forth psychological effects, enabling one individual to physically over power or rule another. These statements as defined by the writer, Jay J. Coakley, is what people today have made a must portion on athletics. Pleasure and engagement athleticss perfectly can non be grouped with power and public presentation athleticss when in relation to aggression.Pleasure athleticss are merely played for pleasance. Mark is normally non maintain. The jocks take parting are normally on juncture making it for merriment and exercising. A bulk of jocks who have been playing athleticss since they were small, have likely been pounded into their caputs that to be successful in athletics, you need to be aggressive, and at some times, unneeded. Besides that to acquire what you want, you have to travel at it with all force. Not that this is incorrect but, this attitude in today # 8217 ; s society has been a major job factor to the jocks when they get older, to acquire into problem with the jurisprudence. Those long-run effects of so called subject, patterns develops these destructive behaviours. ( 9. Montague ) Although some people are still in belief that aggressive behaviours in all signifiers, are grounded int o inherent aptitudes, but they besides relate these actions to athleticss. Their parents played, who were known for their aggressive behaviour, so the kid feels that they have to populate up to that outlook. ( 6. Storr ) Athletes do hold to be aggressive to a point, so that the squad can organize a scheme to win. There is besides a bound to aggression when it turns into force. Peoples might state that it # 8217 ; s non aggression or force, it # 8217 ; s merely adrenaline pumping. Adrenaline International Relations and Security Network # 8217 ; t even similar to force. Aggression, possibly, but nil that would be harmful to anyone else. This might be a factor to why contact athleticss are so popular. For illustration, football, hockey, rugger, wrestle, and packaging. Contrary to anticipations of replete theory, several surveies show that contact athleticss exist and thrive in the same societies that have high rates of aggression and force. Unfortunately, another belief is that cont act athleticss Teach subject, self-respect, and self-defence. ( 8. May ) Contact athleticss aren # 8217 ; t a positive manner to learn these things. Bing physically tough aid, but it besides needs to be left on the field when the game is over. This can besides take to the maltreatment of household, girlfriends, fellows, friends, and any other individual who gets in their # 8220 ; manner # 8221 ; , because jocks use these athleticss as a manner to acquire their aggression and cholers out. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) Other # 8217 ; s might reason that it # 8217 ; s skill, and non in the least manner violent. Although we truly can # 8217 ; t give a heterosexual and to the point reply to the inquiry # 8220 ; Is aggression an Instinct? # 8221 ; We can state that in adult male, as in other animate beings, there exists a physiological mechanism, when stimulated, it rises both subjective feelings of choler and to physical alterations, which relate to contending. This is easy set of f, and like other emotional responses, it is really stereotypic, and natural. Just like one individual is like a really angry individual ; they resemble one another at the psychological degree. The manner in which worlds adapt to and command their feelings of fury. ( 5. Toch ) The mechanisms in which these organic structure alterations, the maps that come about is still wholly misunderstood. ( 5. Toch ) Experiments from animate being # 8217 ; s show that it appears that there is a little country from the base of the encephalon in which the feeling of choler starts. This, from which is sent to the nervous urges that cause the blood force per unit area to lift. This country is called the hypothalamus. Its map is to organize responses like choler. ( 3 Diamond ) The relationship between choler, fury, and force, and abnormal psychology that is unnatural, or unnatural in human behaviour and experience. Peoples demonstrate their choler reactions in different ways. Similar to most human be haviour, force has a significance that it merely seems # 8220 ; senseless # 8221 ; or # 8220 ; meaningless # 8221 ; to the extent that we are unable to understand it. Most force starts the fiery human emotions of choler and fury. Not all violent behaviour has its beginnings in choler and fury ; some of it is learned, as mentioned before. Some force is driven chiefly by as Friedrich Nietzsche referred as # 8220 ; the will to power # 8221 ; . In other words, fury. ( 3. Diamond ) Fury is an instinctual and defensive reaction to severe emphasis, or physical menace. This is an automatic physiological reaction that people portion with animate beings. This response to serious menace is referred to by Walter Cannon as the # 8220 ; fight or flight # 8221 ; response. It # 8217 ; s the first defence for the endurance of the species. Any other menace to the continued physical being, a individual would hold the inherent aptitude to seek to go forth, or if they can # 8217 ; T, so physic ally support them by assailing the beginning of the menace. ( 7. Hawkynss, Fredman ) Associating to the fact that work forces are more aggressive than adult females are, surveies shown in several instances those testosterone degrees in immature work forces particularly are. The high degrees of endogenous testosterone seem to promote behavior seemingly intended to rule, to heighten one # 8217 ; s position over other people. ( 9. Montague ) Sometimes aggressive behaviour is aggressive, it # 8217 ; s evident purpose being to bring down injury on another individual, but frequently laterality is expressed nonaggressively. Measurement of testosterone at a individual point in clip presumptively index of a adult male # 8217 ; s basal testosterone degree, predicts many of these dominant behaviours. Numerous carnal experiments, this one specific to gnawers, show that raising testosterone additions aggressiveness. This is in relation to the laterality and antisocial behaviour related to the persons. An person can be said to move dominantly if it # 8217 ; s evident purpose is to accomplish or keep high position, to obtain power influence, or valued privileges. Rodents do typically rule sharply, but it isn # 8217 ; t true of worlds. Much of interpersonal behaviour is overtly or subtly concerned with pull offing laterality and subordination without doing physical injury. It is harder to place cases of aggression of a dominating motivations, things related to spiritual forfeits. It is understood that motives are different from different state of affairss for laterality and aggression. ( 1. Felson, Tedeschi ) Clinical scientific discipline assumes that all work forces are capable of bloody destructiveness. It maintains that image with most people who do off with their hates and, and although There are some cases where this attempt fails. Some people are so diffident about their aggressiveness that when they are provoked in the least small manner, they become so violent t hat they are intolerable. Even a little reappraisal of violent behavior suggests that force International Relations and Security Network # 8217 ; t blind, and random. Members of active packs are often nonviolent when separated from their members. Many highly unsafe people seem to specialise in certain countries of victims. This is in relation to taking the aggressiveness off the field. There is sometimes a relationship between being violent and being socially improper. Violence normally takes topographic point in certain circles, certain scenes, and on certain occasions. If force is truly unsighted and random, it # 8217 ; s difficult to understand why we should happen so much in specific state of affairss. Does a adult male assault his married woman instead than the jock who messed up merely because she # 8217 ; s available? Violence can # 8217 ; t be associated with angry detonations. There is form and signifier to force. Patterns of destructiveness show systematically, and the y relay from individual to individual. As for each of us, force seems to be tied to a restricted scope of life state of affairss. It seems to reflect intent, and implies the presence of concealed significances. So, how do we fulfill it? How is it provoked? How do violent people map? ( 4. Stepansky ) The degree of testo sterone circulating in the blood stream may impact ruling or aggressive behaviour by triping receptors in variety meats or the nervous system. Concentrating on immature males who have passed through pubescence. There are associated studies that show a comparatively high degree of testosterone with dominant, aggressive, or antisocial histrions including several surveies of work forces in gaol. The scientists found that no important testosterone difference between those who fought in prison, and those who did non, between the ages of 18 to 35. However, captives with a anterior record of force and aggression related offenses, they had a significantly higher testosterone degree than those without a history. In the age group of 18to 45, sorted into the same groups, those with chronic aggressive behaviour, those socially dominant without physical aggressiveness, and those who were neither aggressive or dominant, their testosterone degrees were non significantly different between the aggres sive and dominant groups, but they besides had significantly higher testosterone than the group that was either aggressive or dominant. ( 7. Hawkynss, Fredman ) A similar survey was tested on college hockey participants. ( 1. Felson, Tedeschi ) They studied 14 male college participants ages 18 to 23, and found a important correlativity between testosterone and manager evaluations of player’s aggressiveness in respond to menace. Another survey was done on four male doctors. Ranging from ages to 23 to 38, they were confined on a boat for a two hebdomad holidaycruise. The testosterone degree to be correlated with the physician’s assertiveness and dominant behaviour, as ranked by three adult females on the boat. Overall, there is considerable grounds from a assortment of scenes that in work forces, go arounding testosterone is correlated with dominant or aggressive behaviour, and antisocial norm breakage. Correlation doesn’t connote any ground, and the inquiry is st ill being pondered, â€Å"Is high testosterone a cause of dominant and antisocial behaviour? † ( 9. Montague ) There has besides been argument whether or non that adult females can be as aggressive and dominant as work forces. Despite considerable guess that testosterone is associated with aggression or position in adult females, the literature is few and far between. Scientists report that testosterone degrees in 55 adult females increased the position of their businesss. Another survey was done with adult females who were patients in a neurological clinic, found significantly higher testosterone degrees among comparatively aggressive patients compared to less aggressive 1s, but they besides differed in diagnois, and doing the comparing suspect. ( 5. Toch ) The issue of sex differences has been addressed by inquiring how work forces and adult females respond to an indistinguishable competitory state of affairs. Testosterone was given by spit to immature work forces and adult females before, during, and after viing with a same sex spouse in a picture game. The hormonal response to the competition was different in each sex. Males showed the usual pre – competition rise in testosterone, but females did non. Males did non demo the usual consequence that testosterone degrees of victors is higher than that of also-rans, seemingly because the picture game produced no temper difference between male victors and also-rans. A temper difference was produced between female victors and also-rans, but the female showed no specific response to the competition. These consequences show that the result of the competition on testosterone specific to work forces. ( 7. Hawkynss, Fredman ) From research lab consequences and athletic surveies, the testosterone degree rises in work forces expecting a competition, irrespective of the eventual result competition. Generalizing to the street, endocrine degrees should be elevated in immature work forces who are invariably ag ainst assaults on their reputes. Of class, testosterone degree is besides affected by the result of the competition, so relentless also-rans might be hormonally down, but most work forces, those with assorted result or better, should hold elevated testosterone degree. ( 3. Diamond ) Leaving behind the historic roots of the South, there may be a general hypersensitivity to diss in any subculture that is, or one time was organized around immature work forces who are invariably constrained by traditional community agents of societal control, as after occurs in frontier states, packs, among Gypsies, and after societal dislocation or natural diseases. When immature work forces place particular accent on protecting their images and reputes, and they are non restrained from making so, laterality competitions become necessary, the trademark of male to male interaction. ( 5. Toch ) To construe racial differences in testosterone, a comparing of black and white male childs ages 6 to 18 old age s, largely preteens, showed no important race different in testosterone. By maturity, black males do hold significantly higher testosterone degrees than white males, perchance reflecting the higher defensive demands on black work forces during maturity. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) The mutual linkage between endocrines and behavior suggests that if testosterone degrees among immature work forces in the interior metropolis are highlighted by their changeless defensive position against challenge and these high endocrine degrees in bend encourage farther laterality competitions. Feedback between challenge and testosterone may make a assorted circle, sometimes with deadly effects. ( 7. Hawkynss, Fredman ) During pubescence, the effects of testosterone on behavior appear to work chiefly through long term reorganisations of the organic structure and neurohormanal system, and merely secondary through short term activation. By the terminal of pubescence, normally around 16 old ages, the org anic structure is about at it’s grownup signifier so behavior is affected chiefly by the degree of testosterone circulating in the blood watercourse, which can trip steroid receptors. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) There is a string correlativity and experimental grounds that testosterone degrees respond in predictable ways both before and after competitions for position. First, testosterone rises shortly before a competitory event, as if expecting the challenge. Second, after the decision of competition, testosterone degrees in victors rises relative to that of also-rans. Testosterone besides rises after position ratings, and it falls after position demotions, These effects require the presence of appropriate temper alterations. Limited grounds suggests that this form of testosterone responses is specific to work forces. ( 4. Stepansky ) As these surveies have suggested, aggression in athletics is at that place, but the work forces chiefly showcase it. Aggressive people are at tracted to reach violent athletics competitions, to where they can suit in while being violent. On the other manus, athleticss can make aggressive behaviours that could take to worse things. Womans can and will showcase this, but as said before, work forces show a stronger instance of it. Thingss of this nature have been traveling on for centuries, every since the beginning of athletics, unluckily, if these behaviours aren’t controlled, the immature kids might be the 1s to endure by an result that cipher wants to see, making off with athleticss in general. 1977 5. Violent Men ; an enquiry into the pychology of force, Hans Toch 1969 6. Human Aggression, Anthony Storr 19681. Aggression and Violence, societal interactionists positions. , Richard B. Felson and James T. Tedeschi 1993 2. Sport in Society, Issues and Controversies 6th edition, Jay J. Coakley 1998 3. Anger, Madness, and the Daimaonic ; the pyschologists generation of Violence, immorality and creativitiy. Stephen A. D iamond 1996 4. A History of Aggression Freud, Paul E. Stepansky 7. The Creation of Deviance, Interpersonal and organized determiners, Richard Hawkins, Gary Fredman, 1975 8. Power and Innocence, Rollo May 1972 9. Man and Aggression, Ashley Montague 1968 10. Adolescents and their Families, Paths of Ego Development, Stuart T. Hauser, Sally I. Powers, Gil G. Noam 1991 Plants Cited 1. Aggression and Violence, societal interactionists positions. , Richard B. Felson and James T. Tedeschi 1993 2. Sport in Society, Issues and Controversies 6th edition, Jay J. Coakley 1998 3. Anger, Madness, and the Daimaonic ; the pyschologists generation of Violence, immorality and creativitiy. Stephen A. Diamond 1996 4. A History of Aggression Freud, Paul E. Stepansky 1977 5. Violent Men ; an enquiry into the pychology of force, Hans Toch 1969 6. Human Aggression, Anthony Storr 1968 7. The Creation of Deviance, Interpersonal and organized determiners, Richard Hawkins, Gary Fredman, 1975 8. Power and Innocence, Rollo May 1972 9. Man and Aggression, Ashley Montague 1968 10. Adolescents and their Families, Paths of Ego Development, Stuart T. Hauser, Sally I. Powers, Gil G. Noam 1991

Coal Pollution Invades Water, Air and Land Essay Example

Coal Pollution Invades Water, Air and Land Paper Coal Pollution Invades the Water, Air, and Soil Amy Crowder Due to the lack of effort to clean the environment of coal mine pollutants, we the society continue to endure the effects of waste. Water, land, and air are the types of pollution we have to deal with each and every day of our lives. Water pollution affects rivers, lakes, and streams. It produces acid-mine drainage, consisting of iron, manganese, and aluminum. Every facet, involving water is effected by acid-pollution in the mines. Coal mining is a negative environmental factor in mountain top removal and strip-mining. Due to the act that our air is so full of pollutants from mining, we attribute many diseases to this problem. A majority Of the streams in southern West Virginia have had acid run off from the coal mines. Once the coal seams open and oxygen is introduced, the process of acid-mine drainage begins (Acid Mine Drainage). The acid runoff is composed of various metals, but primarily iron, manganese, and aluminum. Water is a necessity of life. More than fifty percent of our body is composed of water. Therefore, water pollution is a critical factor in our lives. In the early asses, coal miners didnt care about the elution they were causing and what effects it had on humans and the environment. It was not until 1977 that laws were enacted forcing the clean up (Acid Mine Drainage. ) After many years of the water pollution problems, we are now faced with having to find solutions. A major environmental factor that is destroying the beautiful mountains of West Virginia is mountain top removal. The process of mountain mining begins by digging the rock and soil from the mountains (Mountaintop Mining and Valley Fills). Coal seams are then uncovered and oxygen replaces the soil and rock. The volume of rock ND soil increase due to the swelling of rock and soil, referred to as overburden. Because the overburden cannot be replaced, it is placed in a valley fill. Approximately four hundred sixty-seven miles of streams were buried in the valley fills (Joyce). Open-pit mining destroys our land by digging out rocks and minerals. The purpose of open-pit mines is to dig out low-sulfur coal (Iron and Steel). When the overburden is too thin, these types of mines are used. We will write a custom essay sample on Coal Pollution Invades Water, Air and Land specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Coal Pollution Invades Water, Air and Land specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Coal Pollution Invades Water, Air and Land specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Open-pit mines are extended until there arent any more minerals to dig out. The largest one extended several kilometers long and five hundred feet deep. After iron ore has been removed, waste rock is left behind. It consists of acid-generating sulfides, and heavy metals, which is stored above ground in draining piles. Underground mining is when coal miners dig tunnels to reach large deposits of coal (Iron and Steel). The miners remove the coal by digging a shaft (hole) into the rock next to the deposit of coal. They drill tunnels horizontally into the coal at different ground levels. The coal is lifted to the surface in buckets by railroad transportation or conveyor belts. Underground mining is more expensive and dangerous than open-pit mining. This method of mining effects our environment. The shafts, when not filled in, become sinkholes. Mines then become producers of acid mine waste. The shafts become sources for environmental waste. Air pollution is something we breathe every day. One of the most common pollutants is coal dust. It is very unsanitary because the coal dust is dirty and consists of sulfur and iron and aluminum particles, as well as other elements (Chapter Twelve: Burdens of Coal). Coal miners dig out rocks that have high contents of organic material. Organic compounds from the coal react with oxygen in the air causing the quality of air to decrease. Coal contains natural gas, mostly methane, which leaks out of the mine into the air once the coal has been mined. Methane is the most dangerous natural gas. It is lighter than air and rises to the top of a mine. When a mine has been inactive for quite sometime, methane builds up in the shaft making it very hazardous. If a miner entered the mine with a lantern and came in contact with methane, it could kill him and cause an explosion in the mine. The deeper the mines, the more the methane. It would ignite from sparks of mining tools. Miners used a method to test the mines for what type of gases were present. They took a small animal or bird in the mine with them. If the animal died, they knew the gas level was high. Twenty states, comprised of two hundred twenty four counties, with Kananga County being one of them, failed to follow the federal air standards by the Environmental Protection Agency (Ward). One-half of all West Virginians live where air is polluted by small particles from coal mines. Air pollution can lead to long or short-term illnesses due to the many pollutants in the air. Coal dust is very harmful to the lungs. Many years of exposure to dust has caused respiratory problems (Chapter Twelve: The Burdens of Coal). More dust was accumulated when machinery was used in the mines, and the coal miners breathe in twice as much as they did previously. The number one illness was black lung. Many miners were affected by this. Black 2 lung begins with inhalation of coal dust particles, which causes an inflammation in the upper part of the lungs (Joyce). Then, it forms fibrous scars, causing the lungs to stiffen and decrease lung function. The only way to establish black lung is by a chest x-ray. Other than a transplant, there is no cure. Miners who are disabled by black lung receive payments by American Coal companies. In 1985, they paid the coal miners one billion dollars (Chapter Twelve: The Burdens of Coal). The Coal Act established safety standards for coal mines (Joyce). They provide free chest x-rays for coal miners and compensation funds for the ones disabled by black lung. Thousands of miners die from explosions, roof collapses, gases, and black lung (Joyce). The mortality rate from lung diseases is sixty percent. Dust from any mineral can cause lung disease. Some of the minerals found in mines are aluminum oxide, cadmium oxide, graphite, and mica. In 1991, 150,000 coal miners were exposed to coal mine dust (Joyce). A new health issue that has been approached by coal miners is hearing loss. Thousands of hearing loss cases were reported before it had any affect on the reduction of the noise levels in the mines (Joyce). Eighty percent of coal miners have a twenty-five decibel hearing loss by age sixty. Injury rates are higher in smaller mines. Coal miners who have to crawl on their knees have a greater chance of back injuries and carpal tunnel (Joyce). The Division of Air Quality (DADS) has regulations that protect the public health and prevent environmental degradation caused by air pollution (Citizens Guide: Office of Environmental Advocate 5). It is guided by Federal Clean Air Act; WV code, Chapter 22, Articles 5 and 18; rules 45 CARS series 1-38. The Federal Clean Air Act established National Ambient Air Quality standards for particulate matter sulfur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Title V operating permits ensure sources of air pollution follow requirements of Clean Air Act (Citizens Guide: Office of Environmental Advocate 6). The Division of Mining and Reclamation oversees mining activities. This division is guided by various WV codes and rules (Citizens Guide: Office of Environmental Advocate 7). A coal mining permit ensures the preservation ND integrity of land and water resources that will be disturbed by mining operations. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System is to ensure the integrity of rivers and streams from coal and non-coal mining operations. Groundwater protection plan ensures the integrity of groundwater when it is disturbed by coal mines (Citizen 3 Guide: Office of Environmental Advocate 8). The Office of Explosives and Blasting regulates blasting activities involved with surface coal mining. They monitor inspections and investigations. The Office of Oil and Gas regulates drilling of oil and gas by overseeing industry through inspection.